Tangible Images in Worship —More History

The Use of Tangible Images in the Worship Life of the Church 

by Larry D. Harvey. 

Previous articles may be found in the archives of this Blog and of Reclaiming Our Heritage under Christian Worship.
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In this issue, we continue our consideration of the use of tangible images of God and the Persons of the Trinity within the worship life of the Church.  In the last issue, we considered "The Statements and Teachings of Sacred Scripture About Images, Pictures, or Statues" from Martin Chemnitz's Examination of the Council of Trent, Part IV, Second Topic, Section IV, Chapter III, pp. 96-106.  But we before we begin, let us remember God's Words on the subject:

"'Therefore watch yourselves very carefully.  Since you saw no form on the day that the LORD spoke to you at Horeb out of the midst of the fire, beware lest you act corruptly by making a carved image for yourselves, in the form of any figure, the likeness of male or female, the likeness of any animal that is on the earth, the likeness of any winged bird that flies in the air, the likeness of anything that creeps on the ground, the likeness of any fish that is in the water under earth....Take care, lest you forget the covenant of the LORD your God, which he made with you, and make a carved image, the form of anything that the LORD your God has forbidden you. For the Lord your God is a consuming fire, a jealous God.'"  (Deuteronomy 4:15-18, 23,24, emphasis added, ESV)

"You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under earth.  You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the LORD your God is a jealous God...." (Exodus 20:4,5, emphasis added; ESV)

We must not become so absorbed in historical observations that we forget the authority of the Holy Scriptures as the sole source and norm of the teachings and life of Christ's Church.

When the reign of Constantine was completed, the Church found itself in a world where the civil government had, in large part, effectively destroyed the pagan idols within the Roman Empire's territory and where the Church was no longer overtly persecuted.  Reasonably soon thereafter, the historical use of tangible images began to increase among Christians.  For example, John Chrysostom (ca. 345-407; patriarch of Constantinople: Christian Cyclopedia, p. 171) reported that Christians so mourned the death of Miletius of Antioch "...that they caused his form and image to be painted on walls and tablets, and to be engraved on chalices and rings." (quoted, IV, p. 96).  Churches began to be decorated quite magnificently during this time and "...the use of images began also in the churches themselves, not indeed for worship and adoration, but partly as historical reminders, partly for the sake of decoration.  This was begun chiefly about A.D. 380....But that images or pictures were found in churches themselves cannot be shown from their sure and genuine writings; for the forged ones we deservedly repudiate." (IV, pp. 96-97)

Chemnitz found the first trustworthy references in the Greek speaking churches of  pictures located in the churches themselves in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa.  Gregory of Nyssa (ca. 331- ca. 396) was one of the three most prominent teachers of the early Christian Church who worked in Cappadocia in the Fourth Century A.D.  He, along with Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus, championed the confession of the faith of Nicaea and brought the work of Athanasius to "...a climax.  The virtual defeat of Arianism at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople 381 was largely due to their efforts." (Christian Cyclopedia, p. 135, see also p. 350)  Gregory of Nyssa describes the memorials of martyrs and includes references to specific paintings of the martyr Theodore and of the history of Abraham preparing to kill Isaac with language such as "These things the painter, as though speaking in a book, depicted artistically...For also a picture, hanging silently on a wall, is accustomed to speak to us and to do much good...." (quoted IV, p.97)

Among the Latin speaking churches, Chemnitz references writings about Pontius Paulinus "...who lived after A.D. 400, that when the people who assembled on the birthday [the anniversary of a martyr's death] of blessed Felix were accustomed to feast in the church, Paulinus saw to it that the walls of the church were decorated with pictures of the Old and New Testament, in order that those who reclined at table, being occupied and looking at these, might conduct their meal more temperately."   (IV, p. 97)  Chemnitz describes other pictures concerning depictions of the Trinity, martyrs, and departed saints in those same early Latin speaking churches.

"One gathers...that later the sign of the cross was also brought into the church.  For when Olympiodorus had asked whether it would proper to decorate the church with pictures of various living things, he [Nilus (died ca. A.D.430: Lutheran Cyclopedia, p. 578)] answers that this is childish and foolish, but that in the holy place a cross is to be pictured, and the walls are to be filled with the histories of the Old and New Testament, the works of a skilful painter.  However, in those times there were only crossbeams put together in the form of a cross...for what is written...about the image of a suffering man added onto the cross, came much later..." (IV, p.99)

We should note in these observations by Chemnitz that we are encountering descriptions of paintings presenting historical events, with skillful and artistic depictions of God's reign over such events, and the steadfast faith of departed saints undergoing temptations, and adversities and persecution.

"It is a very useful observation, which teaches us much, that in those very times when the use of historical pictures began to be received and admitted also into the churches of the Christians, many learned and pious bishops at times spoke against it, fearing that worship of the pictures would follow, and preferring to approve the custom of the primitive church, which had and exercised religion without images; indeed all had then simply condemned the cult and adoration of images."  (IV, p. 99)  This should not be overlooked as we go forward in these reflections upon tangible images.

During the years following the fifth century into the seventh century, tangible images slowly but surely multiplied in the churches, beginning with only pictures but moving on to include statues, as well, but "watchful bishops resisted; however, they approved the historical use of images in such a way that they at the same time forbade and condemned their worship and adoration."  (IV, p. 102)  The struggle between a rightful historical, teaching use of the tangible images and the great temptation to attach worship and adoration to those images was a constant struggle for orthodox bishops and teachers.  Oftentimes, that struggle encountered the superstitions of the common laity who resisted mightily against any taking those superstitions away from them.

"Gregory [Gregory the Great Gregory I, ca. A.D. 540-604; called "The Great, father of medieval papacy": Christian Cyclopedia, p. 627] describes the historical use of images quite well, except that one must give thought to the fact that it is not to be supposed that the words of Scripture are to be placed before the learned, while to the unlearned, statues are to be presented in place of hearing the divine Word.  For the apostles  proclaimed the Gospel even to barbarian nations, not by means of statues, but with the living voice of the Gospel.  And whatever may be said about teaching and communicating through pictures, in no way is a picture to be compared with the Word of God  (written, preached, read, heard, and meditated upon), least of all preferred to it." (IV, p. 103)

Chemnitz argues that the argument of those, such as the Jesuits and supporters of the Council of Trent, who "philosophize on the basis of the nature and characteristics of signs, namely that a picture moves the mind more and more strongly to devotion than the divine Word, when heard and meditated upon, is by no means to be admitted.  For these things must be judged, not from the physical nature of signs, but from the command and promise of God." (IV, p. 103)  I am compelled to wonder if the modern church appears to agree more with Trent than with Chemnitz.  Perhaps, as Chemnitz suggests, (IV, p.103), we should consider the Scriptures on this point:

"When therefore the historical use of images is admitted, that opinion which either compares or prefers the use of images to the Word of God, preached and heard, must of necessity be censured. " (IV, p. 104)  The early church fathers, such as Athanasius and Eusebius, "distinctly rejected and refuted the pretext of the heathen that statues were, so to speak, the writings of the common people". (IV, p. 104)

Historically speaking, it is clear that following the time of Gregory the Great, there was an ever growing increase in the superstitious views on the use of images in the church.  There were certainly many who argued that they were not really worshiping and adoring the images themselves but the God represented by or in the images, but maintaining the distinction between a proper historical, teaching use and the adoration of the images themselves became increasingly difficult, as we will examine in the next issue in this series.  Also, "it is to be observed that a beginning was first made in the times around A.D. 690 in regard to making a picture of Christ crucified (that is, ...a figure or human form representing His humiliation, passion, and death) and placing it in the church.  For until that time only the sign of the cross had been used...." (IV. p. 106)  Three hundred years with no cross in the churches.  Then, three hundred more years with only bare wooden crosses.  It was certainly not due to a lack of artisans.

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In the next part of this series, we will look at the beginning of overt worship and adoration of images in the church, as we move into the eighth century A.D.

Images In Worship

This is the seventh article to reflect Upon the Use of Tangible Images in the Worship Life of the Church by Larry D. Harvey. Previous articles may be found in the archives of Reclaiming Our Heritage under Christian Worship.

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In this issue, we continue our consideration of the use of tangible images of God and the Persons of the Trinity within the worship life of the Church.  In the last issue, we considered "The Statements and Teachings of Sacred Scripture About Images, Pictures, or Statues" from Martin Chemnitz's Examination of the Council of Trent, Part IV.  In this issue, we will begin an historical overview of the primitive New Testament Christian Church, employing the same form of citation as previously noted in prior issues.

The New Testament contains no commandment from our Lord Jesus Christ about the use of tangible images for the Word and Sacrament ministry of the Church.  In addition, we find no Scriptural reference to the use of tangible images or statues by the Apostles for the proclamation of the true doctrine.  This is true even when the Apostles were engaged in proclaiming the Gospel to pagan peoples.  When they had completed their work of laying a true foundation of the true faith in any particular location, they proceeded on to other places, and when they did so, "they did not commend repetitions and reminders of the doctrine to statues, but to faithful men who were fit to teach others [2 Tim. 2:2], and for this purpose they reduced to writing the doctrine they had taught.  For they did not teach that images or statues are the instrument through which the Holy Spirit works efficaciously, calling, enlightening, converting, sanctifying men, but the Word of God, written, preached, heard, pondered (Rom. 1:1 ff.; 2 Cor. 3:3; 2 Tim. 3:15-17; 1 Peter 1:10-12; Ps. 119)."  (IV, p. 82)  Although the Apostles attacked the worship of idols which involved the worship use of statues and images, and proclaimed and introduced true worship of the true God, they did not transfer the use of statues and images over to the true worship of the true God, nor did they simply substitute replacement images in their stead.  "But they taught that the true God is to be worshipped in spirit and in truth, not according to either private or public devotions, but according to the prescription of the Word." (IV, p.82)

When the legitimate histories of the Church of the first three hundred years are examined, no mention of the use of tangible images or statues in their public worship life can be found.  Since the worship of false gods involved the adoration or worship of images, "...the Christians simply abhorred images and condemned as heretics those who wanted to worship and adore either the statues of others or also Christ Himself in statues or through images." (IV, p. 83)  It was not a small thing that the worship life of these early Christians differed from the heathen worship forms in that the heathen worshipped their idols employing likenesses, tangible images, and statues.  These early Christians knew well God's clear Word "God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth." (John 4:24)

"And in order to cut off every occasion for idolatry, in order that the Christian religion might have no affinity with paganism, which consisted in the worship of images, and lest the seeds of heathen superstition should through the occasion of images either creep into the church or remain in the minds of converts, the primitive church did not want to receive even the images of Christ and of the saints into the places of worship.  And among the points of accusation the heathen threw also this up to the Christians, that they had a religion without images." (IV, p.83)

Early Church fathers strongly defended the Church's lack of tangible images with numerous arguments based upon the fact that God has chosen to reveal Himself in His Word, which is heard, read, considered, and meditated upon in the mind of man.  These Church fathers fought with great earnestness those who claimed to desire to now worship the true God through tangible images, who argued that it was not the image itself that they were worshiping but the name of the one to whom it had been consecrated.  These Church fathers fought also against the argument that the image was to assist in recalling into present memory those now separated by death or absence.  For example, Lactantius, a Christian apologist born circa A.D. 240-260 and died circa A.D. 320-340, who was born of heathen parents and became a Christian perhaps around A.D. 300, (Lutheran Cyclopedia,)  stated "Surely, an image of a God whose spirit and divinity is diffused everywhere and can never be absent is superfluous." (quoted, IV, p. 86)  These Church fathers consistently treated the use of images in worship as a teaching proceeding from Satan as Satan sought to turn people away from the worship of the One True God.  Lactantius also said "Therefore there is no doubt that there is no religion where there is an image." (quoted, IV, p.87)

"To sum it up, it is certain from sure and approved histories...that until the age of Jerome there were men of approved piety who allowed no image, either painted or sculpted or woven, in the churches, not even an image of Christ.  For we read in Eusebius that not even in the time of Constantine, who adorned churches with many costly offerings of gold, silver, and precious stones, were images received into churches." (IV, p. 88)  Therefore, for at least three hundred years, there is no evidence from reliable and trustworthy written histories that the primitive Christian Church used tangible images in the worship life of the Church nor that such were allowed in places of public prayer.

"It still remains to be shown that, excluding worship and adoration, not every historical use of images was simply rejected in the primitive church." (IV, p.91)  Eusebius, sometimes identified as Eusebius of Caesarea, circa A.D. 260- circa A.D. 339, called "The Father of Church History", (Lutheran Cyclopedia), for example, wrote of the civil and historical use of tangible images, and did not condemn images of Christ and of the Apostles in their historical use, but the early church did not institute any public worship gatherings or pilgrimages to any statue or worship or adoration.  The Church fathers, such as Origen, circa A.D. 185 - circa A.D. 254 (Lutheran Cyclopedia), a Greek Church Father, and Lactantius, also did not condemn the civil use of images such as statues of kings after their deaths.  But a clear line was drawn.  For example, Constantine, circa A.D. 280 - A.D. 337, Roman Emperor A.D. 306 -337, who granted the Christian church not only legal standing but also Imperial support (Lutheran Cyclopedia), after his conversion to Christianity, had his picture painted.  He was depicted as "...standing upright, looking upward to heaven, his hands uplifted as though he were praying." (IV, p. 94)  He was not condemned as having violated God's Law in Exodus 20:4,5.  "You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.  You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the LORD your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their children to the third and forth generation of those who hate me." (ESV)  However, Constantine commanded that this picture of him not be placed in any temple of an idol.  But, it should be noted that it was not reported that it was placed in any Christian church either.

We do find frequent references in the writings of the early Church fathers to the sign of the cross.   During those times, it was not a tangible image of a man with outstretched arms, nailed to the cross, "but at the time of Tertullian [circa A.D. 155/160 - circa A.D. 220/230 (Lutheran Cyclopedia)] and afterward the Christians with their fingers formed a transverse figure like a cross in the air, and in this way identified themselves.  It was not, however, a sign put forward for worship and adoration, for it was at that time not something with continued existence, but was only a profession and reminder that they believed in Christ crucified, and that they were placing all their hope and confidence in Him."  (IV, p. 94)

 It was after the conversion of Constantine that "the sign of the cross began to be represented by two pieces of wood joined crosswise, or painted in this form." (IV, p. 94)  This arose from Constantine having purportedly seen the sign of the cross "formed by the splendor of the light" (IV, p. 94)  when deciding whether or not the cast off heathen worship and follow Christ, with the addition of "In this sign conquer!" (IV, p. 94)  Constantine directed that a military emblem be made as follows: "A long spear, overlaid with gold, with a transverse arm, constructed in the form of a cross.  At the top a crown woven about with precious stones and gold, in which the mark of the Savior was inscribed with the first two letters of the name of Christ.  On the crosspiece a cloth was suspended shining with precious stones.  Downward, below the cloth on the long spear, there was a golden effigy of Constantine and his children, depicted as far as the breast."  (IV, p. 95)  It is important that we note that this sign was not placed in churches for worship and adoration.  It was a military banner or emblem, which was thereafter "preserved privately in the royal palace" (IV, p. 95)  and engraved on the weapons of his soldiers.  Constantine hoped to use this as part of his confession of faith to his soldiers in the hope that it would help lead them to worship of the true God.  This image was not taken into or used within the churches, nor was any other image placed in churches during that time.

In this discussion, we have seen that during the first three hundred years after Christ that tangible images were not employed in the church's worship of the true God and were not allowed into places of prayer.  In the next part of this series, we will look at when images began to be received into churches and what the first use of such images was, along with what followed thereafter.